Traditional & Classiacl Arabic Music
Arabic music or Arab music (Arabic: موسيقى عربية; Mūsīqā ʿArabīyya) is the
music of the Arab World, including several genres and styles of music ranging
from Arabic classical to Arabic pop music and from secular to sacred music.
Arabic music, while independent and very alive, has a long history of
interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It is an amalgam
of the music of the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula and the music of all the
peoples that make up the Arab World today. As was the case in other artistic and
scientific fields, Arabs translated and developed Greek texts and works of music
and mastered the musical theory of the Greeks (i.e. Systema ametabolon,
enharmonium, chromatikon, diatonon).
Bayad
plays the oud to The Lady. from the Riyad & Bayad , Arabic
tale
Pre-Islamic period
The development of Arabic
music has extremely deep roots in Arabic poetry dating
back to the pre-Islamic period known as Jahiliyyah.
Though there is a lack of scientific study to
definitively confirm the existence of Arabic music at
those times, most historians agree that there existed
distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the
pre-Islamic period between the 5th and the 7th century
AD. Arab poets of that time - called شعراء الجاهلية or
"Jahili poets" which translates to "The poets of the
period of ignorance" - used to recite poems with a high
musical rhythm and tone. Music at that time played
an important role in cultivating the mystique of
exorcists and magicians. It was believed that Jinns
revealed poems to poets and music to musicians.
The Choir at the time served as a pedagogic facility
where the educated poets would recite their poems.
Singing was not thought to be the work of these
intellectuals and was instead entrusted to women with
beautiful voices (i.e. Al-Khansa) who would learn how to
play some instruments used at that time (i.e. lute,
drum, Oud, rebab, etc...) and then perform the songs
while respecting the poetic metre. It should be
noted that the compositions were simple and every singer
would sing in a single maqam. Among the notable songs of
the period were the "huda" from which the ghina'
derived, the nasb, sanad, and rukbani'
Early Islamic period
Arabic maqam is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic
music, which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic
means "station" and denotes a melody type built on a
scale and carrying a tradition that defines its habitual
phrases, important notes, melodic development and
modulation. Both compositions and improvisations in
traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system.
Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental
music, and do not include a rhythmic component. Al-Kindi
(801–873 AD) was the first great theoretician of Arabic
music. He proposed adding a fifth string to the oud and
discussed the cosmological connotations of music.
He surpassed the achievement of the Greek musicians in
using the alphabetical annotation for one eighth. He
published fifteen treatises on music theory, but only
five have survived. In one of his treaties the word
musiqa was used for the first time in Arabic, which
today means music in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, English
and several other languages in the Islamic world.
Abulfaraj (897–967) wrote great book about music Kitab
al-Aghani is an encyclopedic collection of poems and
songs that runs to over 20 volumes in modern editions by
the 8th/9th-century litterateur . Al-Farabi (872-950)
wrote a notable book on music titled Kitab al-Musiqi
al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian
tone system is still used in Arabic music.
Al-Ghazali (1059–1111) wrote a treatise on music in
Persia which declared, "Ecstasy means the state that
comes from listening to music". In 1252, Safi al-Din
developed a unique form of musical notation, where
rhythms were represented by geometric representation. A
similar geometric representation would not appear in the
Western world until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published
a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional
graph.
Al-AndalusMain
article:
Andalusian classical musicBy the 11th century, Moorish Spain
had become a center for the manufacture of instruments.
These goods spread gradually throughout France,
influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching
the rest of Europe. The English words lute, rebec, organ
and naker are derived from Arabic oud, rabab, urghun and
nagqara'.
Influence of Arabic music
A number of musical instruments used in classical music
are believed to have been derived from Arabic musical
instruments: the lute was derived from the Oud, the
rebec (ancestor of violin) from the rebab, the guitar
from qitara, which in turn was derived from the Persian
Tar, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from
al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba from al-shabbaba
(flute), atabal (bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from
al-tinbal,[7] the balaban, the castanet from kasatan,
sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr, the conical bore
wind instruments,[8] the xelami from the sulami or
fistula (flute or musical pipe),[9] the shawm and
dulzaina from the reed instruments zamr and
al-zurna,[10] the gaita from the ghaita, rackett from
iraqya or iraqiyya,[11] geige (violin) from ghichak,[12]
and the theorbo from the tarab.[13] Whether these links
between European instruments and Oriental instruments
are more than etymological is not known but is likely to
be nothing more than that. The
music of the troubadors may have had some Arabic
origins. Ezra Pound, in his Canto VIII, famously
declared that William of Aquitaine, an early troubador,
"had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers
and veils...". In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to
have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or
completely recopied in William's manuscript. According
to historic sources, William VIII, the father of
William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim
prisoners.[14] Trend admitted that the troubadours
derived their sense of form and even the subject matter
of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.[15] The
hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created,
more or less, by William after his experience of Moorish
arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain was
also championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal in the early
20th-century, but its origins go back to the Cinquecento
and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and Juan Andrés (died
1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the female
troubadors, also held this hypothesis, as did Idries
Shah. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity,
profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the
second half of the 9th century onwards."[16] One
possible theory on the origins of the Western Solfège
musical notation suggests that it may have had Arabic
origins. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables
(do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from
the syllables of the Arabic solmization system
Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa,
sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by
Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680)
and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne
et Moderne (1780), while more recent supporters include
Henry George Farmer[17] and Samuel D. Miller.[18]
Sixteenth
century
Bartol Gyurgieuvits (1506–1566) spent 13 years as
a slave in the Ottoman empire. After escaping, he
published De Turvarum ritu et caermoniis in Amsterdam in
1544. It is one of the first European books to describe
music in Islamic society. In India, the Islamic Mughal
emperors ruled both Muslims and Hindus. The greatest of
these, Akbar (1542–1605) had a team of at least fifty
musicians, thirty-six of whom are known to us by name.
The origins of the "belly dance" are very obscure, as
depictions and descriptions are rare. It may have
originated in Pre islamic Arabia Examples have been
found from 200 BC, suggesting a possible pre-Islamic
origin.
Early Modern Music in
Cairo
Though, according to Edward William Lane, no man
of sense would ever become a musician, music was a key
part of society. Tradesmen of every occupation used
music during work and the schools taught the Quran by
chanting. Their music was derived from Greek, Persian
and Indian traditions. According to Lane, the most
remarkable peculiarity of the Arab system of music is
the division of tones into thirds. The songs of this
period were similar in sound and simple, consisting of
only a few notes. Male
professional musicians during this period were called
Alateeyeh (pl) (Egyptian: [ʔælæˈtejːæ]), or Alatee
(singular) (Egyptian: [ʔæˈlæːti]), which means “a player
upon an instrument”. However, this name applies to both
vocalists as well as instrumentalists. This position was
considered disreputable and lowly. However, musicians
found work singing or playing at parties to entertain
the company. They generally made three shillings a
night, but earned more by the guests giving more. Female
professional musicians were called Alawim (pl) or
Al’meh, which means a learned female. These singers were
often hired on the occasion of a celebration in the
harem of a wealthy person. They were not with the harem,
but in an elevated room that was concealed by a screen
so as not to be seen by either the harem or the master
of the house. The female Alawim were more highly paid
than male performers and more highly regarded than the
Alateeyeh as well. Lane relates an instance of a female
performer who so enraptured her audience that she earned
to fifty guineas for one night’s performance from the
guests and host, who were not considered wealthy.[19]
Female Harem
Slavery was widespread around the world. Just as
in the Roman empire, slaves were often brought into the
Arab world from Africa. Black slaves from Zanzibar were
noted in the 11th century for the quality of their song
and dance. The "Epistle on Singing Girls", written by
the Basra Mu'tazilite writer al-Jahiz in the 9th century
CE, satirizes the excessive money that could be made by
singers. The author mentions an Abyssinian girl who
fetched 120,000 dinars at an auction - far more than an
ordinary slave. A festival in the 8th century CE is
mentioned as having fifty singing slave-girls with lutes
who acted as back-up musicians for a singer called
Jamilia. In 1893, "Little Egypt", a belly-dancer from
Syria, appeared at the Chicago world's fair and caused a
sensation.
Male
instrumentalists
Male instrumentalists were condemned in a treatise in 9
CE. They were associated with perceived vices such as
chess, love poetry, wine drinking and homosexuality.
Many Persian treatises on music were burned by zealots.
Following the invasion of Egypt, Napoleon commissioned
reports on the state of Ottoman culture. Villoteau's
account reveals that there were guilds of male
instrumentalists, who played to male audiences, and
"learned females," who sang and played for women. The
instruments included the oud, the kanun (zither) and the
ney (flute). By 1800, several instruments that were
first encountered in Turkish military bands had been
adopted into European classical orchestras: the piccolo,
the cymbal and the kettle drum. The santur, a hammered
dulcimer, was cultivated within Persian classical
schools of music that can be traced back to the middle
of 19 CE. There was no written notation for the santur
until the 1970s. Everything was learned face-to-face .
Musicians
in Aleppo, 18th century.
Twentieth century
Early Secular Formation
Musicians
in Aleppo, 1915.
In the 20th century, Egypt was the first in a series of
Arab countries to experience a sudden emergence of
nationalism, as it became independent after 2000 years
of foreign rule. Turkish music, popular during the rule
of the Ottoman Empire in the region, was replaced by
national music. Cairo became a center for musical
innovation. One
of the first female musicians to take a secular approach
was Umm Kulthum quickly followed by Fairuz. Both have
been extremely popular through the decades that followed
and both are considered legends of Arabic music.
Musicians in Aleppo, 1915
Westernization
During the 1950s and the 1960s Arabic music began
to take on a more Western tone with such artists as
Abdel Halim Hafez paving the way. By the 1970s several
other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic
pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western
styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics.
Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. In
the 1990s the several artists have taken up such a style
including Amr Diab, Samira Said, Hisham Abbas, Angham,
Asalah Nasri, Kadhem Al Saher, Mostafa Amar, Najwa
Karam, Nawal Al Zoghbi, Ehab Tawfik, Mohamed Fouad,
Diana Haddad, Mohamed Mounir, Latifa, Cheb Khaled,
George Wassouf, and Hakim. In
1996,( Amr Diab - Habibi ya Nour El Ain ) was released,
becoming a tremendous success not only in the Middle
East nor the Arab world but throughout the entire world.
The title track, and its English version "Habibi", was
an international phenomenon, becoming a massive
crossover hit. In this song Amr Diab has mixed three
music civilizations in one track. The Spanish music in
flamenco music, French music by accordion solo and
Arabic which showed in the playing of drums by Duff
instrument and tamphits. This song
opened the door in front of Arabic music in the way of
internationality and to be popular all over the world.
Franco Arabic
A popular form of West meets East
style of music, similar in many respects to modern Arabic
Pop. This blend of western and eastern music was popularized
as Franco-Arabic music by artists such as Dalida (Egypt),
Sammy Clarke (Lebanon) and Aldo from Australia. Although
Franco-Arabic is a term used to describe many forms of
cross-cultural blending between the West and the Middle
East, musically the genre crosses over many lines as is seen
in songs that incorporate Arabic and Italian, Arabic and
French and, of course, Arabic and English styles and or
lyrics.
Arabic R&B, Reggae,
and Hip
There has also been a rise of R&B, reggae and hip hop influence of Arabic
music in the past five years. This usually involves a rapper
featured in a song (such as Ishtar in her song 'Habibi
Sawah'). The Moroccan singer Elam Jay develop a contemporary
version of Gnawa, fusing it with R&B which he named
Gnawitone Styla. Another variation of contemporary Gnawa
played in Morocco is introduced by Darga. Based in
Casablanca, the group fusing the Gnawa with Reggae. However
certain artists have taken to using full R&B and reggae
beats and styling such as Darine. This has been met with
mixed critical and commercial reaction. As of now it is not
a widespread genre.
Arabic electronica
Electronic dance music is another genre to come out
into popularity, influenced by the styles of North America,
Europe, Australia, and other Western countries. Often, songs
in this genre would combine electronic musical instruments
with traditional Middle Eastern instruments. There are also,
likewise, a number of nightclubs in the Arab world that play
this kind of music.
Arabic jazz
Another popular form of West meets East, Arabic Jazz
is also popular, with many songs using jazz instruments.
Early jazz influences began with the use of the saxophone by
musicians like Samir Suroor, in the "oriental" style. The
use of the saxophone in that manner can be found in Abdel
Halim Hafez's songs, as well as Kadim Al Sahir and Rida Al
Abdallah today. The first mainstream jazz elements were
incorporated into Arabic music by the Rahbani brothers.
Fairuz's later work was almost exclusively made up of jazz
songs, composed by her son Ziad Rahbani. Ziad Rahbani also
pioneered today's oriental jazz movement, to which singers
including Rima Khcheich, Salma El Mosfi, and (on occasion)
Latifa adhere. We can also find a lot of jazz music in
Mohamed Mounir's songs starting from his first album which
it was in 1977, till now he still make some good jazz music.
Arabic rock
Rock music is popular all around the world, and the
Arab world is no exception. There are many Arabic rock bands
that fuse the sound of hard rock with traditional Arabic
instruments. Arabic Rock is gaining a lot of attention in
the Middle East, with bands such as Massar Egbari , Sahara,
Wyvern and Cartoon Killerz in Egypt, Meen and Mashrou' Leila
in Lebanon, and in Jordan with bands such as Jadal. The band
Hoba Hoba Spirit from Morocco is also popular, especially in
the Maghrebi region. Rachid Taha, an Algerian musician,
plays a fusion of Rock and Raï.
Musical regions
The world of modern Arabic music has long been
dominated by musical trends that have emerged from Cairo,
Egypt. The city is generally considered a cultural center in
the Arab world. Innovations in popular music via the
influence of other regional styles have also abounded from
Morocco to Saudi Arabia. In recent years, Beirut has become
a major center, dictating trends in the development of
Arabic pop music. Other regional styles that have enjoyed
popular music status throughout the Arab world, including:
North AfricaAndalusian classical musicChaabi
(Algeria)Chaabi (Morocco)Al Jeel
(Egypt)GnawaHaqibahMalhunMezwedRaïSha'abi
Arabian PeninsulaAdaniArdhaFann
at TanburaFijiriKhalijiLiwaMizmarM'alayahSamriSamiriSawt
LevantDabke
Genres
Secular art musicSecular genres include maqam al-iraqi,
andalusi nubah, muwashshah, Fjiri songs, qasidah, layali,
mawwal, taqsim, bashraf, sama'i, tahmilah, dulab, sawt, and
liwa (Touma 1996, pp. 55–108).
Sacred music
Arabic religious music includes Jewish (Pizmonim and
Baqashot), Christian, and Islamic music. However, Islamic
music, including the Tajwid or recitation of Qur'an
readings, is structurally equivalent to Arabic secular
music, while Christian Arab music has been influenced by
Syriac Orthodox, Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Anglican, Coptic,
and Maronite church music. (ibid, p. 152)
Characteristics of
Arabic music
Much Arabic music, is characterized by an emphasis on melody
and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. There are some genres of
Arabic music that are polyphonic, but typically, Arabic
music is homophonic.[20] Habib Hassan
Touma (1996, p.xix-xx) submits that there are "five
components" that characterize Arabic music: 1.The
Arab tone system; that is, a musical tuning system that
relies on specific interval structures and was invented by
al-Farabi in the 10th century (p. 170)2.Rhythmic-temporal
structures that produce a rich variety of rhythmic patterns,
known as awzan or "weight", that are used to accompany
metered vocal and instrumental genres, to accent or give
them form.3.A number of musical instruments that
are found throughout the Arab world that represent a
standardized tone system, are played with generally
standardized performance techniques, and display similar
details in construction and design.4.Specific
social contexts that produce sub-categories of Arabic music,
or musical genres that can be broadly classified as urban
(music of the city inhabitants), rural (music of the country
inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of the desert
inhabitants)..."5.An Arab musical mentality,
"responsible for the esthetic homogeneity of the
tonal-spatial and rhythmic-temporal structures throughout
the Arab world whether composed or improvised, instrumental
or vocal, secular or sacred." Touma describes this musical
mentality as being composed of:The phenomenon of
the maqāmThe predominance of vocal musicThe
tendency toward small instrumental ensemblesThe
arrangement in different combinatory sequences of the small
and smallest melodic elements - the maqams and ajnas - "and
their repetition, combination, and permutation within the
framework of the tonal-spatial model."The general
absence of polyphony, polyrhythm, and motivic development,
though Arabic music is familiar with the use of ostinato,
and an even more instinctive heterophonic way of producing
and performing music.The alternation between a
free rhythmic-temporal and fixed tonal-spatial organization
on the one hand, and a fixed rhythmic-temporal and free
tonal-spatial structure on the other.
Maqam system
A Maqam tone level exampleThough it would
be incorrect to call it a modal system, the Arabic system is
more complex than that of the Greek modes. The basis of
Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which looks like
the mode, but is not quite the same. The tonic note,
dominant note, and ending note (unless modulation occurs)
are generally determined by the maqam used. Arabic maqam
theory as ascribed in literature over the ages names between
90 and 110 maqams, that are grouped into larger categories
known as fasilah. Fasilah are groupings of maqams whose
first four primary pitches are shared in common.[21]
A Maqam tone
level example
Jins/Ajnas
The maqam consists of at least two jins, or scale segments.
"Jins" in Arabic comes from the ancient Latin word "genus,"
meaning type. In practice, a jins (pl. ajnas) is either a
trichord, a tetrachord, or a pentachord. The trichord is
three notes, the tetrachord four, and the pentachord five.
The maqam usually covers only one octave (usually two jins),
but can cover more. Like the melodic minor scale, some
maqamat use different ajnas, and thus note progressions,
when descending and ascending. Due to continuous innovation
and the emergence of new jins, and because most music
scholars have not reached consensus on the subject, it is
difficult to provide a solid figure for the total number of
jins in use. Nonetheless, in practice most musicians would
agree there are at least eight major ajnas: Rast, Bayat,
Sikah, Hijaz, Saba, Kurd, Nahawand, and Ajam - and their
commonly used variants such as the Nakriz, Athar Kurd, Sikah
Beladi, Saba Zamzama. Mukhalif is a rare jins used almost
exclusively in Iraq, and it is not used in combination with
other ajnas.
More notes used than
in Western scales
The main difference between the Western chromatic
scale and the Arabic scales is the existence of many
in-between notes, which are sometimes referred to as quarter
tones, for the sake of simplicity. In some treatments of
theory, the quarter tone scale or all twenty four tones
should exist. According to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969), in practice,
there are many fewer tones (Touma 1996, p. 170). Additionally,
in 1932, at the Cairo Congress of Arab Music held in Cairo,
Egypt - and attended by such Western luminaries as Béla
Bartók and Henry George Farmer - experiments were done which
determined conclusively that the notes in actual use differ
substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale.
Furthermore, the intonation of many of those notes differ
slightly from region to region (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq).
Regional scales
As a result of these findings, the following
recommendation was issued: "The tempered scale and the
natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyptian
scale is to be kept with the values, which were measured
with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian, and Iraqi
scales should remain what they are..." (translated in
Maalouf 2002, p. 220).[citation needed] Both in modern
practice, and evident in recorded music over the course of
the last century, several differently-tuned "E"s in between
the E-flat and E-natural of the Western Chromatic scale are
used, that vary according to the types of maqams and ajnas
used, and the region in which they are used.
Practical treatment
Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notes
as "quarter tones," using "half-flat" or "half-sharp" as a
designation for the in-between flats and sharps, for ease of
nomenclature. Performance and teaching of the exact values
of intonation in each jins or maqam is usually done by ear.
It should also be added, in reference to Habib Hassan
Touma's comment above, that these "quarter-tones" are not
used everywhere in the maqamat: in practice, Arabic music
does not modulate to 12 different tonic areas like the
Well-Tempered Klavier. The most commonly used "quarter
tones" are on E (between E-flat and E-natural), A, B, D, F
(between F-natural and F-sharp) and C.
Vocal traditions
Arab classical music is known for its famed virtuoso
singers, who sing long, elaborately ornamented, melismatic
tunes, and are known for driving audiences into ecstasy. Its
traditions come from pre-Islamic times, when female singing
slaves entertained the wealthy, and inspired warriors on the
battlefield with their rajaz poetry, also performing at
weddings.
Instruments and ensembles Front
and rear views of an oud.
The prototypical Arabic music ensemble in Egypt and Syria is
known as the takht, and includes, (or included at different
time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qānūn, rabab,
ney, violin (introduced in the 1840s or 50s), riq and
dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional ensemble, known as the
chalghi, includes only two melodic instruments - the jowza
(similar to the rabab but with four strings) and santur-
accompanied by the riq and dumbek. The
Arab world has incorporated instruments from the West,
including the electric guitar, cello, double bass and oboe,
and incorporated influences from jazz and other foreign
musical styles. The singers remained the stars, however,
especially after the development of the recording and film
industry in the 1920s in Cairo. These singing celebrities
include Abd el-Halim Hafez, Farid Al Attrach, Asmahan, Sayed
Darwish, Mohammed Abd el-Wahaab, Warda Al-Jazairia, and
possibly the biggest star of modern Arab classical music,
Umm Kulthum.
Front and rear views of an oud
Sources
Shireen Maalouf (2002). History of Arabic Music
Theory: Change and Continuity in the Tone Systems, Genres,
and Scales. Kaslik, Lebanon: Université Saint-Esprit.
Peter van der Merwe (1989). Origins of the Popular
Style: The Antecedents of Twentiet.h-Century Popular Music.
Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN .
Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs,
trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press.
ISBN 1-57467-081-6.
Further reading
Lodge, David and Bill Badley. "Partner of Poetry".
2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with
McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol.
1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 323–331. Rough
Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBNShiloah, Amnon.
Music in the World of Islam. A Socio-Cultural Study 2001.
ISBNJulián Ribera y Tarragó. La música árabe y su
influencia en la española (1985). ISBN -X (Spanish)Fernández
Manzano, Reynaldo. De las melodías del reino nazarí de
Granada a las estructuras musicales cristianas. La
transformación de las tradiciones Hispano-árabes en la
península Ibérica. 1984. ISBN 84-505-1189-5Fernández
Manzano, Reynaldo y Santiago Simón, Emilio de (Coordinación
y supervisión ed.). Música y Poesía del Sur de al-Andalus.
1995. ISBN 84-7782-335-9[edit] Notes1.^
Habib Hassan Touma - Review of Das arabische Tonsystem im
Mittelalter by Liberty Manik. doi:10.2307/2.^
Singing in the Jahili period - khaledtrm.net (Arabic)3.^
a b ibid.4.^ Saoud, R.. "The Arab Contribution to
the Music of the Western World" (PDF). FSTC.
http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/Music2.pdf. Retrieved
2007-01-12. 5.^ Habib Hassan Touma (1996), The
Music of the Arabs, p. 170, trans. Laurie Schwartz,
Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, ISBN 0-931340-88-86.^
Toussaint, Godfried (August 2004), A Comparison of Rhythmic
Similarity Measures, 5th International Conference on Music
Information,
http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/research/reports/2004/SOCS-TR-2004.6.pdf,
retrieved 2009-07-06
7.^ (Farmer 1988, p. 137)8.^
(Farmer 1988, p. 140)9.^ (Farmer 1988, pp. 140–1)10.^
(Farmer 1988, p. 141)11.^ (Farmer 1988, p. 142)12.^
(Farmer 1988, p. 143)13.^ (Farmer 1988, p. 144)14.^
M. Guettat (1980), La Musique classique du Maghreb (Paris:
Sindbad).15.^ J. B. Trend (1965), Music of
Spanish History to 1600 (New York: Krause Reprint Corp.)16.^
"Troubadour", Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
edited by Stanley Sadie, Macmillan Press Ltd., London17.^
(Farmer 1988, pp. 72–82)18.^ Miller, Samuel D.
(Autumn 1973), "Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and
Educator", Journal of Research in Music Education 21 (3):
239–45, doi:10.2307/3345093, http://jstor.org/stable/3345093
19.^ Lane, Edward William, An Account of the Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians, American University in
Cairo Press 20.^ "Arabian music" on the on-line
edition of The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, at
www.encyclopedia.com21.^
http://www.musiq.com/makam/page0.html Musiq.com[edit]
ReferencesFarmer,
Henry George (1988), Historical facts for the Arabian Musical
Influence, Ayer Publi